Short answers for the communication class Essay

Short responses for the correspondence class - Essay Example I will likewise utilize data from winemaking books. For the second and third articles, I will utilize Google Scholar and online library databases. I will utilize scholastic articles for â€Å"What Happens to the Brain When It Is in Love† in light of the fact that it includes trustworthy proof. For my visual guides, I will utilize pictures of materials required and the phases of making wine for the primary subject. For the subsequent point, I will utilize photos of the cerebrum and representation tables or outlines. For the third theme, I will utilize tables or outlines. 2. How might you rate your Informative Presentation? What were things you progressed nicely? What were things you would improve? Be explicit in your reactions. I would rate my Informative Presentation dependent on the adequacy of my snare in the presentation, the reasonableness of the end, the lucidity of clarification for steps/stages, great syntax, spelling, and other composing mechanics, great progress sente nces, appropriate conveyance with the correct utilization of voice and signals, and a solid postulation. I did well in the substance of my introduction, just as my paralanguage. I clarified the means well, in a way that is connecting with and helped my crowd comprehend the means. I additionally utilized great language that will be conceivable to my crowd. I utilized legitimate syntax and word decisions. I made to sure to have a point and substance that will keep my crowd intrigued. Besides, my paralanguage didn't occupy my crowd from my discourse. I utilized legitimate stops and other voice impacts that will keep my crowd on target on what I am stating and what I intend to state straightaway. 3. What is implied by the expression paralanguage? Is it significant in conveying a powerful discourse? Why or why not? Paralanguage includes vocal correspondence that does exclude real words (Wood 137). It is made of sounds, for example, mumbles and delays, just as vocal characteristics, for e xample, volume, cadence, pitch, and affectation (Wood 137). Paralanguage allude to the vocal prompts that help the crowd comprehend what we mean when we state something. It incorporates sentiments that layer another importance on vocal words. Paralanguage is significant in a powerful discourse since it helps other people decipher what speakers are stating. For instance, a sentence can appear to be a joke or a danger, contingent upon how I said it. What's more, compelling speakers are specialists in regulating their volume, cadence, pitch, and enunciation to draw in their crowds and to keep them inspired by the whole discourse (Wood 137). Besides, paralanguage can show the personality of the speaker. It can say something regarding their sex and culture, which are significant parts of ethos, while examining a theme that is pertinent to their sexual direction or culture. 4. What are your best three subject thoughts for the forthcoming Persuasive Presentation? Is it accurate to say that they are inquiries of certainty, worth, or strategy? Which technique for association do you expect to utilize? Where do you intend to get your examination data? What will you use for a visual guide? My main three subject thoughts for the up and coming Persuasive Presentation are: 1) â€Å"Our kids Are Overmedicated,† 2) â€Å"We Would Benefit from Learning a Third Language,† and 3) â€Å"High School Students Should Volunteer as Part of Their

Make a Mardi Gras Mask - French Project

Make a Mardi Gras Mask - French Project Mardi Gras, which means fat Tuesday in French, is praised in numerous francophone areas. Mardi Gras covers are a customary piece of this yearly festival, and making them is an intriguing and inventive venture for all ages. These essential guidelines and tips can be trailed by anybody setting off to a Mardi Gras party or simply needing to partake in the fun. ProjectMake a Mardi Gras maskInstructions Pick veil base: Cardboard, plastic, metal, development paper, etcCut base to cover the face or eyesCut eyeholes and gaps for nose as well as mouthPunch little openings in each side and connect string or wire (to hold veil in place)Decorate cover Customization Cover Base: The cover base can be made of pretty much anything you dont mind wearing over your face. Paper may not last and metal may be troublesome, yet cardboard is a decent, durable decision. The state of the cover base is constrained uniquely by your imagination. You can slice an oval to cover your face or a bar to cover your eyes, or you can make another shape, for example, a house, a creature, or a tree.Holes for eyes, nose, and mouth can be various shapes - stars, hearts, cuts, and so forth. Enhancements: Pastels, shaded pencils, chalk, charcoal, markers, paint Beads Embroidery Fabric Fake gems Feathers Flowers Glitter Lace Ribbons Sequins Stickers String, yarn Tissue paper Wax Mardi Gras Links French Mardi Gras jargon Carnaval in Nice, FranceMardi Gras party ideasMardi Gras puzzles for kidsMardi Gras recipesMardi Gras melodies Notes Profs de fran㠧ais gathering .

Paper Example Mixture Distribution

Paper Example Mixture Distribution Paper Example: Mixture Distribution Introduction Mixture of normal distributions has been considered by variety of mathematicians as it has a long history in the field of statistics. The first ever person to use the concept of mixture of normal distribution was Newcomb. The idea was used to handle large files. Owing to increased importance of the normal distribution and mixture of normal distribution the various researches have been conducted for exploring the domain. Mixture of normal distribution accommodate variations such as non- normality variables etc to measure the different models. Various tools have been devised to fit the mixture of normal distribution. Among tools and techniques developed for fitting the mixture of normal distribution include mixtool packages. Mixtool is one of the packages in R program that upon identifying the peak of the plotted area and then adjusts standard deviation with mixing percentages to adjust width and height of the plotted area. The project would focus on fitting logarithm of return (log-return) with the mixture of normal distributions along using mix tools package of R. In addition, the application of mixture of normal distributions would also be the concern of the analysis. This will significantly help to evaluate and observe the process of fitti ng log-return with a mixture of normal distributions. The underlying document develops the proposal for the research on the mixture of normal distributions with log returns. For the purpose, document contains details about the areas of research. The proposal determining the problem statement leads to setting the aims and objectives to be achieved with the study. The proposal also provides references from academic literature and sets the methodology to be employed for achieving the study objectives.  Log return is the most prominent practice used by variety of people instead of price or raw return. The benefits associated with the use of Log-return have made the practice unique to various users in various ways such as determining all variables in a comparable metric, that help in evaluation of analytic relationships between variables despite of coming from price series of unequal values. The long-return distribution entails the use of hypothesis that focuses on describing the distribution of change in price through variety of normal cont ribution under the same mean but with different variances. The departures could be explained with the help of normality that highly relies on the use of mixtures of distributions. Geyser data refers to data collected and analyzed concerning volcanic eruptions in Yellow stone National park, Montana. This data comprises 272 pairs of measurements of different time intervals between successive eruptions and the time taken for the subsequent eruption.  This research project would highlight the concept of log-return with the mixtures of normal distribution. Also, the research will discuss the process to fit log-return by mixtools package. In order to do so, the data sets used in the project are daily, weekly and monthly closing prices from January 2003 to July 2012 for Australian stock market indices. Moreover, the application of mixture of normal distributions would be use to analyses geyser data. Hence, the eruption time series and waiting time series will be assessed to be fitted in the normal distribution using mix tools in R. Nature of Problem Importance of long returns has gained increased attention. Mixture of normal distribution has offered greater variation incorporation for understanding different trends in data such increased skewness, kurtosis and so on. These incorporations have made available with traditional an expectationâ€"maximization (EM) algorithm to contemporary mixtools. Hence, the underlying research is concerned for problem, of fitting log returns to normal distribution using contemporary techniques of mixture of normal distribution. On the other hand, geyser data have taken part in the data collection and analysis continuously beginning 1985 by several researchers and geologists. Some of the duration time taken was classified in the levels of long, short and medium. A puzzling situation arises when dealing with discontinuous data with time series features. Significant similarities have been recorded in different results of the collected data analyses. Therefore, in this research will look at analyses this data by mixtools package. Aims and Objectives The aim of the project would be to elaborate the model that fits the log-return with a mixture of normal distribution. The research proposal’s aim would be to provide relevant answers to the following questions; • What is the concept of log-return with a mixture of normal distribution? • What is the process of fitting log-return with a mixture of normal distributions? • How does mix tools package explains the geyser data? • How mix tools package makes it possible to apply mixture of normal distributions? • What is the possible way of fitting geyser data with mixture of normal distribution? Literature Review Normal distribution is one of the most prominent and commonly used models to analyze the daily changes in market variables. Different research studies have revealed that the concept of return in equity, foreign exchanges, and the commodity markets are consistently analyzed with fat tails. It has also been indicated that the concept and assumptions associated with normality are often inappropriate that eventually leads to flaws in the findings . Additionally, the concept of mixture of normal is quite flexible in analyzing the daily changes in the market data. The kurtosis and skewness in the market are the dominant variables that are taken into account with such mixtures. In addition, it has also been revealed that the normal distribution, in particular, is a special case in terms of mixture of normal distributions. Why do we use log return? While investing, it is normal to think of the worth of investment in future, a bank account paying compound interest provides a model to explore the concept of log-return. The benefits of using log return versus the prices are simply because of normalization: this means measuring the variables in a metric that is more comparable. However, the main concept is that we are interested in maximizing the long-term growth. The long term log- return per unit time implicitly takes into account the risk of depletion of the capital with time. The concept of normal distribution could be described as the distribution of data that is symmetrical. In addition, the concept could also be explained as the distribution of data that forms a bell shaped curve when plotted. On the other hand, Kurtosis is the measurement of peak i.e. high or flat, while the concept of skewness focuses on the measurement of symmetry in terms of data. This eventually indicates that the mixture of normal distributions can easily be created by adding variety of normal distributions with different kurtosis and skewness at the same time. In addition, it has been identified that the mixture of normal distribution can significantly accommodate the characteristics and even the non-normality of the data. The mixture of normal distributions is quite flexible method to analyze and model wide variety of random phenomena due to which, the concept of mixture of normal distributions has remained the focus of variety of users. Moreover, the concept of mixture of normal distribution has also been playing an essential role in marketing, economics and finance. Mixtools package is also a prominent concept that focuses on the examination of sample of measurement to evaluate the subgroups of individuals associated with the sample. Further, the finite mixture model focuses on the examination of subgroups rather than the identification of individuals to those subgroups. One of the essential packages is known as ‘R’ mix tools. The aim of the package is to estimate the centers of the peak in the curve that are then termed as the means of the distributions. After doing so, the standard deviations are adjusted with the mixing percentages to match the width of the peak along with the height. The algorithm that is consistently used in the package is known as the expectation-maximization (EM) algorithm. The formula that is used in the mix tools models is as follows; With the help of the formulae, the normal values of one data could be significantly compared to the normal values for the second deviation. With the use of same data different values could be gained which would either be positive or negative. Kamaruzzaman, Isa and Ismail (2012) tested the normal distribution mixture concept on the financial data from FTSE Bursa Malaysia Composite Index (FBM KLCI). The test attempted to explore the explanation of non-normality and asymmetry as essential characteristics of financial data using mixture of normal distribution approach. The results revealed that with mixture of normal distribution can also explain the trends of leptokurtic data. In addition, the test also indentified the fact that skewed data can also be dealt with mixture of normal distribution. Kamaruzzaman, Isa and Ismail (2012) also employed the Maximum Likelihood Estimation (MLE) for fitting in two component mixture of normal distribution to the data sets of log-stock returns adopted for the research. There are mixed views about assessment predictability of the geyser data. Haordle (1991) believes that geyser data predictions are no longer important as it used to be in earlier times. Despite debate of its usefulness, Venables and Ripley (2002) have developed software that provides the automatic prediction of the data eruption time.This allows for the analysis of the recorded data for each day as well as the median intervals for data recorded in one week. This is more typical as compared to the arithmetic average as a result of the shifting mean of the values recorded for different eruption times. These data aids in developing models and trends of the eruptions with respect to time. The predictive nature of the geyser indicates the basis of the name “old is faithful.” However, in recent times, other researchers indicate variance in the predictions made from prior investigations as a result of changes in the eruption over time. The concept of log-return is also an essential concept to identify the mixture of normal distribution. The use of log-return provides the users with variety of benefits. It has been observed that the use of log-return provides the individual with an ability to observe changes in the variable that can be directly compared with other variables that have different base values. Methodology Quantitative data from the Australian stock market indices will be used, different companies in the stock exchange will form part of the study, for instance, data collected from the Australian stock exchange market in NAT. BANK FPO (NAB.AX), ASX Limited (ASX.AX) and ASX. FPO. The mean and the weight together with their associated standard deviation will be considered in the analysis, if the standard deviation decreases by a particular margin, then it would be a low season, the reverse would be true. The methodology that will be used in the study of geysers is the quantitative research methodology. In this particular case, the use of electronic monitoring using data logs will be used to capture these data. The data loggers for the geysers tend to record the temperature of runoff at a point approximately 20 meters towards west from the vent. The sensor will be used to capture preplay as soon as the eruptions begin, considering a delay of between 1 and 10 minutes from the visual minutes captured in OFVC logbook. The position of the sensor will be ensured to be far away from the geyser to the extent to which the temperature trace cannot influence determination of the geyser . The methodology described has been used time and again in other similar works and has proved to bear fruits. After timing the duration of the eruptions, a regression analysis will be used to find the expected ranges before the next eruption. However, better analysis will be deployed through the use of mixtools analysis, especially since it’s impossible to extract data for regression from the logger. A simple plot of time versus interval will be used, to show rough changes, however, more details concerning the long-term variation in the behavior of geysers will be predicted using moving median graph, it is essential especially because it removes the very short and the very long intervals, giving a better picture of the behavior, additionally, the median intervals tends to remain fairly steady with a bit of fluctuations. Another method that will be used to study the long term behavior is to plot a graph of the distribution of the intervals over the different years. Geyser data will particular concern the volcanic eruptions in Yellow stone National park in Montana, these data will comprise of 272 pairs of measurements or a range of intervals, concerning different intervals of time between successive eruptions, and the subsequent eruptions. After this data is collected, mixtools packages will be used to fit mixture models. In this process, eruption time will be recorded, and an increase in weight recorded, this will be used to indicate the high regime in the eruption time, the use of mean could also be used, an increase in the mean would mean an increase in the regime of eruption, this will also be accompanied by increased standard deviations. Waiting time will then be recorded, and the low regime in the waiting time, will be indicated by a decrease in the weights. This is similar to the changes in the mean values that will be recorded. The mixtools packages in R will only consider a Univariate normal mixture analysis; this resembles to a mixture from the Univariate Gaussian family, with 75 iterations, to form a more consistent and representative, consistent and internally and externally valid results. The standard deviations used will be 4, and mean 55. The j-th component density has a mean of µ and ?2 variance. The steps for this method for the mixtures of Univariate normal is straight forward, and can be easily applied in this particular case, the normalmixEM function is implemented in the mixtools. Number of iterations= 75 Expected Results A significant drop in closing price by the Australian stock exchange is expected, these are considering the low regimes in the stock values in the first normal values. The second normal values are a high means with the low variances, indicating balance in the distribution of the low regime. The expected results in geysers are that the eruption time and the waiting time would assume the same relativity in the level of similarity. It is expected that the two sets would indicate different regimes, with a general increase, the data in the tables will be very relevant in indicating these results.

My Experience Of My Flight - 873 Words

As I sit in the airport, my eyes scan the scene. I begin to watch people as they walk past me. Some are in a hurry; some could care less if they make it to their gate on time. You begin to categorize different types of people as they walk, or run, past you. As I learn that my flight has been delayed for another three hours, I take a seat against the wall and start to make a list, a list of the different types of people in the airport. â€Å"What do you think we will do when we get to the hotel†, said my mom. Being caught off guard, I say, â€Å"Hmm?† â€Å"I said, what do you think we will do once we get to the hotel?† â€Å"I don’t know! I will honestly just want to sleep after the day that we’ve had.† â€Å"You’re probably right. Should we just order room service, and then call it a night?† At this point, I start to tune her out because if I don’t, she will talk for hours. I reach for my backpack sitting next to me, and I take out my notebook. At the top, I title it, People in the Airport. I begin to write down different types of people. The ones who can’t figure out how an airport works. The ones who inch their way closer and closer, hoping to board sooner. The ones who bring way more then they need to. There are multiple different types of people in the airport. Here are just a few: The Lost Ones The lost ones are those who have no idea where they are going. They wander around aimlessly trying to get to their gate, but the only problem is, they don’t know where it’s at. Like do they notShow MoreRelatedThe Crucible, By Warren Bennis And Robert Thomas Essay1397 Words   |  6 PagesMy crucible experience was serving as a flight commander in the Euro-NATO Joint Jet Pilot Training Program (ENJJPT). This was one of the most challenging leadership roles that I have been placed in, primarily because of the range of individuals that I was leading. It was not a lot of people, especially compared to Army leadership positions, but it was an interesting and challenging mix of individual types. While there are countless events that contributed to my overall learning experience, I willRead MoreFemale Filight Attendant Cover Letter Sample996 Words   |  4 PagesFemale Flight Attendant Cover Letter Sample 322 Example Street Newark, NJ 65211 January 22, 2012 Mr. John Doe, Human Resources Manager ExpressJet Newark, NJ 65214 Re: Flight Attendant (Job ID 878) Dear Mr. Doe: Your Flight Attendant position, as advertised in The Daily Express, caught my attention because it involves the challenge of providing excellent customer service. I have been seeking just such a great opportunity and I think my background in hospitality and customer service sectorRead MoreMy Life Flight Nurse Is Not A Smoke Jumper1722 Words   |  7 Pagesrealize what we want to be. 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Since technology has been developed, people’s lives have also been changed. One of the examples is that manyRead MoreThe Genre Of Dance And The Flights Of Fancy Piece Was Ballet933 Words   |  4 PagesThe genre of dance that was represented in the Flights of Fancy piece was ballet. This amazing piece was choreographed by Lisa A. Fusillo and was accompanied with music by Antonin Dvorak. I knew that Flights of Fancy was a ballet number because many of the dancers used the alignment of their heads, shoulders, and hips to execute ballet technique. The use of a turnout was used in most of the choreography and it showed clean footwork, perfect angles, and gorgeous lines. In order for these dancers toRead MoreSummary on Service Encounter Journal1242 Words   |  5 Pagessix weeks, I realized my interaction with the serv ice providers played a vital role in improving my perceptions regarding service quality, as they also influenced my satisfaction and brand perception. 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Question 1.1. Explain The Sequence And Rate Of Each Aspect

Question 1.1: Explain the sequence and rate of each aspect of development from birth – 19 years: There are five aspects of a child and young person’s development that are measured on, Social development, physical development, intellectual development, communication, and emotional development. Development refers not to the physical growth of children and young people, but to the skills and knowledge that they are developing. All children and young people follow a similar pattern of development so the order in which each child grows from one milestone to the next will roughly be the same. However, each child will develop at a different rate and their development may not progress evenly across all areas. Physical development Physical†¦show more content†¦Between the ages of 6 and 7 years old they will use fine motor skills which may include putting a jigsaw together, putting cloths on and off and using buttons, they can kick and control a ball, use a knife and fork competently, but will need help to cut meat up. From ages 8-9 children will increased body strength and co-ordination and have a quicker reaction time, they can ride a two-wheeled bike, skip more freely, enjoy active, energetic games and sports, and will enjoy participating in competitive sports. They will have more control over small muscles and therefore write and draw with greater skill, drawing with more details, and are beginning to join letters together in handwriting. Age 10 and 11 years will differ in physical maturity because girls experience puberty earlier generally as much as 2 years ahead of boys, they will start to have body’s proportions that are becoming like those of adults. During adolescence, young people go through many changes as they move from childhood into teenagers, between the ages of 11-16 young girl’s breasts will have started to develop and will have fully develop between 12-18 years old. A girl’s menstrual cycle may start as early as 10 years old and as late as 15. Pubic, armpi t hair and underarm hair will grow like that of an adult. At 13-14 years, boys may notice that their testicles and scrotum are growing and by the age 16 or 17 the genitals are usually at their adult size. Armpit, pubic, leg, chest, and facial hairShow MoreRelatedExplain the Difference Between Sequence of Development and Rate of Development and Why the Difference Is Important.1465 Words   |  6 PagesCYP3.1 Outcome 1.2 Explain the difference between sequence of development and rate of development and why the difference is important. It is important to know the difference between the sequence and the rate of development as it helps to identify the Childs needs during the stages of their school years. It is crucial to plan effectively ensuring the child receives the support they need in the areas they find most difficult in, for example physical development shows a pacific pattern; a babyRead MoreShould Hire Jill For The Position Of `` Floating `` Administrative Assistant?1697 Words   |  7 Pageswill take a survey from current business supervisors and managers within the United States. The results from the survey will help me understand how others would manage the above scenario. I will design the questions in the survey to not reveal any bias. However, I will word the questions to acknowledge my theory, â€Å"not to hire additional individuals with a disability to the small firm.† Part III: Hypothesis and Survey Design: My hypothesis ask if, â€Å"Most people believe that employers perceiveRead MoreExplain the sequence and rate of each aspect of development that would normally be expected in children and young people from birth - 19 years3072 Words   |  13 Pagesï » ¿Unit Title MU 5.2 Assessment Criteria 1.1 Explain the sequence and rate of each aspect of development that would normally be expected in children and young people from birth – 19 years. Physical development is the increase in size which takes place as a child develops. It is the way the body increases in skill and becomes more complex in its performance. 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Essay on The Importance of Human Evolution - 1794 Words

Introduction The main purpose of this essay is to critically discuss the importance of an understanding of human evolution and the history of psychology for the modern psychologist. The essay aims to critically discuss the study of human evolution which includes some of the species that evolved over the years before we now have our species, the history of psychology and the different prominent figures that are responsible for psychology being the field it is today. Finally, how an understanding of this can aid a modern psychologist. To conclude, this essay will collate previous research done on human evolution, history of psychology and the importance of this for the modern psychologist. Human Evolution Human evolution started with Charles†¦show more content†¦The next major species found after the Australopithecus was the Homo habilis. Around the same time period they came into existence, two other species were present, homo rudolfensis (Alexeev 1986) and homo ergaster (Archaeology Information n.d). The brain size of Homo habilis was about 590-687 cc, unlike the Australopithecus they should evidence of tool usage (Tobias 1987). The homo ergaster species has a brain size of approximately 860cc (Australian museum n.d). They also showed evidence of tool making and there was a possibility of vocalization (). It is evident through this how the species are becoming more and more progressive, from the first species discussed not showing evidence of tool making and their brain size getting larger as each species is evolving. The next set of species is the homo Neanderthalensis; they evolved from a species named homo Heidelbergensis, who were thought to be the first species that acquired protolanguage (de Beaune et al. 2009). Homo Neanderthals had a brain size was about 1100-1400 cc (Holloway, Sherwood and Hof et al 2009). 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Cellular Communication free essay sample

The basic structure of mobile networks includes telephone systems and radio services. Where mobile radio service operates in a closed network and has no access to the telephone system, mobile telephone service allows interconnection to the telephone network. Cell phones, also known as mobile phones or wireless phones, are hand-held phones with built-in antennas. Unlike home phones, cell phones can be carried from place to place with a minimum of fuss. This makes them a good choice for people who want to be in touch with other people even when they are away from the house. How Do Cell Phones Work? Not many people know it, but cell phones are actually two-way radios, much like the walkie-talkies of the past, albeit much more advanced. When you talk into your cell phone receiver, it registers your voice and converts the sound into radio waves. These waves travel through the air until they reach a receiver, which is usually found at a base station. This station will then send your call through a telephone network until it contacts the person you wish to speak with. Similarly, when someone places a call to your cell phone, the signal travels through the telephone network until it reaches a station near you. The station sends the radio waves out into the neighboring areas. These radio waves are then picked up by your cell phone and converted into the sound of a human voice. Cell phones are a vast improvement over the telecommunications technology of the past, and are daily becoming a fixture of modern life. As always, communication is vital, and cell phones will help you to better communicate with the key people in your life. Using a cell phone is one of the first steps you must take to participate effectively in the emerging global economy. Early Mobile Telephone System Architecture Traditional mobile service was structured in a fashion similar to television broadcasting: One very powerful transmitter located at the highest spot in an area would broadcast in a radius of up to 50 kilometres. The cellular concept structured the mobile telephone network in a different way. Instead of using one powerful transmitter, many low-power transmitters were placed throughout a coverage area. For example, by dividing a metropolitan region into one hundred different areas (cells) with low-power transmitters using 12 conversations (channels) each, the system capacity theoretically could be increased from 12 conversations or voice channels using one powerful transmitter to 1,200 conversations (channels) using one hundred low-power transmitters. Figure 2 shows a metropolitan area configured as a traditional mobile telephone network with one high-power transmitter. 2. 0 Mobile Telephone System Using the Cellular Concept Interference problems caused by mobile units using the same channel in adjacent areas proved that all channels could not be reused in every cell. Areas had to be skipped before the same channel could be reused. Even though this affected the efficiency of the original concept, frequency reuse was still a viable solution to the problems of mobile telephony systems. Engineers discovered that the interference effects were not due to the distance between areas, but to the ratio of the distance between areas to the transmitter power (radius) of the areas. By reducing the radius of an area by 50 per cent, service providers could increase the number of potential customers in an area fourfold. Systems based on areas with a one-kilometre radius would have one hundred times more channels than systems with areas 10 kilometres in radius. Speculation led to the conclusion that by reducing the radius of areas to a few hundred meters, millions of calls could be served. The cellular concept employs variable low-power levels, which allow cells to be sized according to the subscriber density and demand of a given area. As the population grows, cells can be added to accommodate that growth. Frequencies used in one cell cluster can be reused in other cells. Conversations can be handed off from cell to cell to maintain constant phone service as the user moves between cells. The cellular radio equipment (base station) can communicate with mobiles as long as they are within range. Radio energy dissipates over distance, so the mobiles must be within the operating range of the base station. Like the early mobile radio system, the base station communicates with mobiles via a channel. The channel is made of two frequencies, one for transmitting to the base station and one to receive information from the base station. 3. 0 Cellular System Architecture Increases in demand and the poor quality of existing service led mobile service providers to research ways to improve the quality of service and to support more users in their systems. Because the amount of frequency spectrum available for mobile cellular use was limited, efficient use of the required frequencies was needed for mobile cellular coverage. In modern cellular telephony, rural and urban regions are divided into areas according to specific provisioning guidelines. Deployment parameters, such as amount of cell-splitting and cell sizes, are determined by engineers experienced in cellular system architecture. Provisioning for each region is planned according to an engineering plan that includes cells, clusters, frequency reuse, and handovers. Cells A cell is the basic geographic unit of a cellular system. The term cellular comes from the honeycomb shape of the areas into which a coverage region is divided. Cells are base stations transmitting over small geographic areas that are represented as hexagons. Each cell size varies depending on the landscape. Because of constraints imposed by natural terrain and man-made structures, the true shape of cells is not a perfect hexagon. Clusters A cluster is a group of cells. No channels are reused within a cluster. Figure 4 illustrates a seven-cell cluster. Frequency Reuse Because only a small number of radio channel frequencies were available for mobile systems, engineers had to find a way to reuse radio channels to carry more than one conversation at a time. The solution the industry adopted was called frequency planning or frequency reuse. Frequency reuse was implemented by restructuring the mobile telephone system architecture into the cellular concept. The concept of frequency reuse is based on assigning to each cell a group of radio channels used within a small geographic area. Cells are assigned a group of channels that is completely different from neighbouring cells. The coverage area of cells is called the footprint. This footprint is limited by a boundary so that the same group of channels can be used in different cells that are far enough away from each other so that their frequencies do not interfere. Cells with the same number have the same set of frequencies. Here, because the number of available frequencies is 7, the frequency reuse factor is 1/7. That is, each cell is using 1/7 of available cellular channels. Cell Splitting Unfortunately, economic considerations made the concept of creating full systems with many small areas impractical. To overcome this difficulty, system operators developed the idea of cell splitting. As a service area becomes full of users, this approach is used to split a single area into smaller ones. In this way, urban centres can be split into as many areas as necessary to provide acceptable service levels in heavy-traffic regions, while larger, less expensive cells can be used to cover remote rural regions. Handoff The final obstacle in the development of the cellular network involved the problem created when a mobile subscriber travelled from one cell to another during a call. As adjacent areas do not use the same radio channels, a call must either be dropped or transferred from one radio channel to another when a user crosses the line between adjacent cells. Because dropping the call is unacceptable, the process of handoff was created. Handoff occurs when the mobile telephone network automatically transfers a call from radio channel to radio channel as mobile crosses adjacent cells. During a call, two parties are on one voice channel. When the mobile unit moves out of the coverage area of a given cell site, the reception becomes weak. At this point, the cell site in use requests a handoff. The system switches the call to a stronger-frequency channel in a new site without interrupting the call or alerting the user. The call continues as long as the user is talking, and the user does not notice the handoff at all. 4. 0 North American Analog Cellular Systems Originally devised in the late 1970s to early 1980s, analog systems have been revised somewhat since that time and operate in the 800-MHz range. A group of government, telco, and equipment manufacturers worked together as a committee to develop a set of rules (protocols) that govern how cellular subscriber units (mobiles) communicate with the cellular system. System development takes into consideration many different, and often opposing, requirements for the system, and often a compromise between conflicting requirements results. Cellular development involves the following basic topics: * frequency and channel assignments * type of radio modulation * maximum power levels * modulation parameters * messaging protocols * call-processing sequences The Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) AMPS was released in 1983 using the 800-MHz to 900-MHz frequency band and the 30-kHz bandwidth for each channel as a fully automated mobile telephone service. It was the first standardized cellular service in the world and is currently the most widely used standard for cellular communications. Designed for use in cities, AMPS later expanded to rural areas. It maximized the cellular concept of frequency reuse by reducing radio power output. The AMPS telephones (or handsets) have the familiar telephone-style user interface and are compatible with any AMPS base station. This makes mobility between service providers (roaming) simpler for subscribers. Limitations associated with AMPS include the following: * low calling capacity * limited spectrum no room for spectrum growth * poor data communications * minimal privacy * inadequate fraud protection AMPS is used throughout the world and is particularly popular in the United States, South America, China, and Australia. AMPS uses frequency modulation (FM) for radio transmission. In the United States, transmissions from mobile to cell site use separate frequencies from the base station to the mobil e subscriber. Narrowband Analog Mobile Phone Service (NAMPS) Since analog cellular was developed, systems have been implemented extensively throughout the world as first-generation cellular technology. In the second generation of analog cellular systems, NAMPS was designed to solve the problem of low calling capacity. NAMPS is now operational in 35 U. S. and overseas markets, and NAMPS was introduced as an interim solution to capacity problems. NAMPS is a U. S. cellular radio system that combines existing voice processing with digital signaling, tripling the capacity of todays AMPS systems. The NAMPS concept uses frequency division to get 3 channels in the AMPS 30-kHz single channel bandwidth. NAMPS provides 3 users in an AMPS channel by dividing the 30-kHz AMPS bandwidth into 3 10-kHz channels. This increases the possibility of interference because channel bandwidth is reduced. 5. 0 Cellular System Components The cellular system offers mobile and portable telephone stations the same service provided fixed stations over conventional wired loops. It has the capacity to serve tens of thousands of subscribers in a major metropolitan area. The cellular communications system consists of the following four major components that work together to provide mobile service to subscribers. * public switched telephone network (PSTN) * mobile telephone switching office (MTSO) cell site with antenna system * mobile subscriber unit (MSU) PSTN The PSTN is made up of local networks, the exchange area networks, and the long-haul network that interconnect telephones and other communication devices on a worldwide basis. Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO) The MTSO is the central office for mobile switching. It houses the mobile switching center (MSC), field monitoring, and relay stations for switching calls from cell sites to wireline central offices (PSTN). In analog cellular networks, the MSC controls the system operation. The MSC controls calls, tracks billing information, and locates cellular subscribers. The Cell Site The term cell site is used to refer to the physical location of radio equipment that provides coverage within a cell. A list of hardware located at a cell site includes power sources, interface equipment, radio frequency transmitters and receivers, and antenna systems. Mobile Subscriber Units (MSUs) The mobile subscriber unit consists of a control unit and a transceiver that transmits and receives radio transmissions to and from a cell site. The following three types of MSUs are available: * the mobile telephone (typical transmit power is 4. 0 watts) * the portable (typical transmit power is 0. 6 watts) * the transportable (typical transmit power is 1. 6 watts) * The mobile telephone is installed in the trunk of a car, and the handset is installed in a convenient location to the driver. Portable and transportable telephones are hand-held and can be used anywhere. The use of portable and transportable telephones is limited to the charge life of the internal battery. 6. 0 Digital Systems As demand for mobile telephone service has increased, service providers found that basic engineering assumptions borrowed from wire line (landline) networks did not hold true in mobile systems. While the average landline phone call lasts at least 10 minutes, mobile calls usually run 90 seconds. Engineers who expected to assign 50 or more mobile phones to the same radio channel found that by doing so they increased the probability that a user would not get dial tone this is known as call-blocking probability. As a consequence, the early systems quickly became saturated, and the quality of service decreased rapidly. The critical problem was capacity. The general characteristics of time division multiple access (TDMA), Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), personal communications service (PCS) 1900, and code division multiple access (CDMA) promise to significantly increase the efficiency of cellular telephone systems to allow a greater number of simultaneous conversations. Figure 8 shows the components of a typical digital cellular system. The advantages of digital cellular technologies over analog cellular networks include increased capacity and security. Technology options such as TDMA and CDMA offer more channels in the same analog cellular bandwidth and encrypted voice and data. Because of the enormous amount of money that service providers have invested in AMPS hardware and software, providers look for a migration from AMPS to digital analog mobile phone service (DAMPS) by overlaying their existing networks with TDMA architectures. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) North American digital cellular (NADC) is called DAMPS and TDMA. Because AMPS preceded digital cellular systems, DAMPS uses the same setup protocols as analog AMPS. TDMA has the following characteristics: * IS? 54 standard specifies traffic on digital voice channels * initial implementation triples the calling capacity of AMPS systems * capacity improvements of 6 to 15 times that of AMPS are possible * many blocks of spectrum in 800 MHz and 1900 MHz are used * all transmissions are digital * TDMA/FDMA application 7. 3 callers per radio carrier (6 callers on half rate later), providing 3 times the AMPS capacity TDMA is one of several technologies used in wireless communications. TDMA provides each call with time slots so that several calls can occupy one bandwidth. Each caller is assigned a specific time slot. In some cellular systems, digital packets of information are sent during each time slot and reassembled by the receiving equipment into the original voice components. TDMA uses the same frequency band and channel allocations as AMPS. Like NAMPS, TDMA provides three to six time channels in the same bandwidth as a single AMPS channel. Unlike NAMPS, digital systems have the means to compress the spectrum used to transmit voice information by compressing idle time and redundancy of normal speech. TDMA is the digital standard and has 30-kHz bandwidth. Using digital voice encoders, TDMA is able to use up to six channels in the same bandwidth where AMPS uses one channel. Extended Time Division Multiple Access (E? TDMA) The E? TDMA standard claims a capacity of fifteen times that of analogue cellular systems. This capacity is achieved by compressing quiet time during conversations. E? TDMA divides the finite number of cellular frequencies into more time slots than TDMA. This allows the system to support more simultaneous cellular calls. Fixed Wireless Access (FWA) FWA is a radio-based local exchange service in which telephone service is provided by common carriers (see Figure 9). It is primarily a rural application that is, it reduces the cost of conventional wire line. FWA extends telephone service to rural areas by replacing a wire line local loop with radio communications. Other labels for wireless access include fixed loop, fixed radio access, wireless telephony, radio loop, fixed wireless, radio access, and Ionic. FWA systems employ TDMA or CDMA access technologies. Personal Communications Service (PCS) The future of telecommunications includes PCS. PCS at 1900 MHz (PCS 1900) is the North American implementation of digital cellular system (DCS) 1800 (GSM). Trial networks were operational in the United States by 1993, and in 1994 the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) began spectrum auctions. As of 1995, the FCC auctioned commercial licenses. In the PCS frequency spectrum, the operators authorized frequency block contains a definite number of channels. The frequency plan assigns specific channels to specific cells, following a reuse pattern that restarts with each nth cell. The uplink and downlink bands are paired mirror images. As with AMPS, a channel number implies one uplink and one downlink frequency (e. g. , Channel 512 = 1850. -MHz uplink paired with 1930. 2-MHz downlink). Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) CDMA is a digital air interface standard, claiming 8 to 15 times the capacity of analogue. It employs a commercial adaptation of military, spread-spectrum, single-sideband technology. Based on spread spectrum theory, it is essentially the same as wire line service the primary difference is that access to the local exchan ge carrier (LEC) is provided via wireless phone. Because users are isolated by code, they can share the same carrier frequency, eliminating the frequency reuse problem encountered in AMPS and DAMPS. Every CDMA cell site can use the same 1. 25-MHz band, so with respect to clusters, n = 1. This greatly simplifies frequency planning in a fully CDMA environment. CDMA is an interference-limited system. Unlike AMPS/TDMA, CDMA has a soft capacity limit; however, each user is a noise source on the shared channel and the noise contributed by users accumulates. This creates a practical limit to how many users a system will sustain. Mobiles that transmit excessive power increase interference to other mobiles. For CDMA, precise power control of mobiles is critical in maximizing the systems capacity and increasing battery life of the mobiles. The goal is to keep each mobile at the absolute minimum power level that is necessary to ensure acceptable service quality. Ideally, the power received at the base station from each mobile should be the same (minimum signal to interference). 7. 0 REFERENCES 1. Basic Communication Engineering by Rusnani Arifin, Juliana Md Sharif, Nor Hidayah Saad and Mohd Aminuddin Murad. 2. http://www. gsmfavorites. com/documents/introduction/gsm/ 3. en. wikipedia. org/wiki/History_of_mobile_phones